Insects - Insecta - The Animal Encyclopedia

Insects (Insecta) are the most diverse of all animal groups. There are more species of insects than there are species of all other animals combined. Their numbers are nothing short of remarkable — both in terms of how many individual insects there are, as well as how many species of insects there are. In fact, there are so many insects that no one knows quite how to count them all — the best we can do is make estimates. Scientists approximate that there may be as many as 30 million species of insects alive today. To date, over one million have been identified. At any one time, the number of individual insects alive on our planet is staggering — some scientists estimate that for every human alive today there are 200 million insects. The success of insects as a group is also reflected by the diversity of habitats in which they  live. Insects are most numerous in terrestrial environments such as deserts, forests, and grasslands. They are likewise numerous in freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, streams, and wetlands. Insects are relatively scarce in marine habitats but are more common in brackish waters such as salt marshes and mangroves. Key Characteristics The  key characteristics of insects include: Three main body partsThree pairs of legsTwo pairs of wingsCompounds eyesMetamorphosisComplex mouth partsOne pair of antennaeSmall body size Classification Insects are classified within the following taxonomic hierarchy: Animals Invertebrates Arthropods Hexapods Insects Insects are divided into the following taxonomic groups: Angel insects (Zoraptera) - There are about 30 species of angel insects alive today. Members of this group are small, hemimetabolous insects, which means they undergo a form of development that includes three stages (egg, nymph, and adult) but lacks a pupal stage. Angel insects are small and are most often found living under the bark of trees or in rotting wood.Barklice and booklice (Psocoptera) - There are about 3,200 species of barklice and booklice alive today. Members of this group include granary booklice, booklice, and common barklice. Barklice and booklice live in moist terrestrial habitats such as in leaf litter, under stones, or in the bark of trees.Bees, ants, and their relatives (Hymenoptera) - There are about 103,000 species of bees, ants, and their relatives alive today. Members of this group include bees, wasps, horntails, sawflies, and ants. Sawflies and horntails have a body that is joined by a broad section between their thorax and abdomen. Ants, bees, and wasps have a body that is joined by a narrow section between their thorax and abdomen.Beetles (Coleoptera) - There are more than 300,000 species of beetles alive today. Members of this group have a hard exoskeleton and a pair of rigid wings (called elytra) that serve as protective covers for their larger and more delicate  hind wings. Beetles live in a wide variety of terrestrial and freshwater habitats. They are the most diverse group of insects alive today.Bristletails (Archaeognatha) - There are about 350 species of bristletails alive today. Members of this group do not undergo metamorphosis (immature bristletails resemble smaller versions of adults). Bristletails have a cylindrical body that tapers to a narrow bristle-like tail.Caddisflies (Trichoptera) - There are more than 7,000 species of caddisflies alive today. Members of this group have aquatic larvae that build a protective case in which they live. The case is constructed of silk produced by the larva and also incorporates other materials such as organic debris, leaves, and twigs. Adults are nocturnal and short-lived.Cockroaches (Blattodea) - There are about 4,000 species of cockroaches alive today. Members of this group include cockroaches and waterbugs. Cockroaches are scavengers. They are most abundant in tropical and subtropical habitats although their distribution is worldwide.Crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) - There are more than 20,000 species of crickets and grasshoppers alive today. Members of this group include crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, and katydids. Most are terrestrial herbivores and many species have powerful hind legs that are well-adapted  for jumping.Damselflies and dragonflies (Odonata) - There are more than 5,000 species of damselflies and dragonflies alive today. Members of this group are predators in both the nymph and adult stages of their life cycles (damselflies and dragonflies are hemimetabolous insects and, as such, they lack the pupal stage in their development). Dam selflies and dragonflies are skilled fliers that feed on smaller (and less skilled) flying insects such as mosquitos and gnats.Earwigs (Dermaptera) - There are about 1,800 species of earwigs alive today. Members of this group are nocturnal scavengers and herbivores. The adult form of many species of earwigs  has cerci (the rear-most segment of their abdomen) that are modified into elongated pincers.Fleas (Siphonaptera) - There are about 2,400 species of fleas alive today. Members of this group include cat fleas, dog fleas, human fleas, rabbit fleas, oriental rat fleas, and many others. Fleas are blood-sucking parasites that prey primarily on mammals. A small percentage of flea species prey on birds.Flies (Diptera) - There are about 98,500 species of flies alive today. Members of this group include mosquitos, horse flies, deer flies, house flies, fruit flies, crane flies, midges, robber flies, bot flies, and many others. Although flies have one pair of wings (most flying insects ha ve two pairs of wings), they  are nevertheless highly-skilled  fliers. Flies have the highest wing-beat frequency of any living animal.Mantids (Mantodea) - There are about 1,800 species of mantids alive today. Members of this group have a triangular head, elongated bodies, and raptorial forelegs. Mantids are well-known for the prayer-like posture in which they hold their front legs. Mantids are predatory insects.Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) - There are more than 2,000 species of mayflies alive today. Members of this group are aquatic in the egg, nymph, and naiad (immature) stages of their life. Mayflies lack a pupal stage in their development. Adults have wings that do not fold flat over their back.Moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) - There are more than 112,000 species of moths and butterflies alive today. Moths and butterflies are the second most diverse group of insects alive today. Members of this group include swallowtails, milkweed butterflies, skippers, clothes moths, clearw ing moths, lappet moths, giant silk moths, hawk moths, and many others. Adult moths and butterflies have large wings that are covered with tiny scales. Many species have scales that are colorful and patterned with complex markings.Nerve-Winged Insects (Neuroptera) - There are about 5,500 species of nerve-winged insects alive today. Members of this group include dobsonflies, alderflies, snakeflies, green lacewings, brown lacewings, and antlions. Adult forms of nerve-winged insects have highly-branched venation in their wings. Many species of nerve-winged insects act as predators to agricultural pests, such as aphids and scale insects.Parasitic lice (Phthiraptera) - There are about 5,500 species of parasitic lice alive today. Members of this group include bird lice, body lice, pubic lice, poultry lice, ungulate lice, and mammal chewing lice. Parasitic lice lack wings and live as external parasites on mammals and birds.Rock crawlers (Grylloblattodea) - There are about 25 species of roc k crawlers alive today. Members of this group lack wings as adults and have long antennae, a cylindrical body, and long tail bristles. Rock crawlers are among the least diverse of all insect groups. They live in high-elevation habitats.Scorpionflies (Mecoptera) - There are about 500 species of scorpionflies alive today. Members of this group include common scorpionflies and hanging scorpionflies. Most adult scorpionflies have a long slender head and narrow wings with highly-branched venation.Silverfish (Thysanura) - There are about 370 species of silverfish alive today. Members of this group have a flattened body that is covered with scales, Silverfish are so named for their fish-like appearance. They are wingless insects and have long antennae and cerci.Stoneflies (Plecoptera) - There are about 2,000 species of stoneflies alive today. Members of this group include common stoneflies, winter stoneflies, and spring stoneflies. Stoneflies are so named for the fact that as nymphs, they live beneath stones. Stonefly nymphs require well-oxygenated water to survive and for this reason, are found in  swift-moving streams and rivers. Adults are terrestrial and live at the edges of streams and rivers where they feed on algae and lichens.Stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea) - There are about 2,500 species of stick and leaf insects alive today. Members of this group are best known for the fact that they mimic the appearance of sticks, leaves, or twigs. Some species of stick and leaf insects are capable of changing color in response to alterations in light, humidity, or temperature.Termites (Isoptera) - There are about 2,300 species of termites alive today. Members of this group include termites, subterranean termites, rotten wood termites, dry wood termites, and damp wood termites. Termites are social insects that live in large communal nests.Thrips (Thysanoptera) - There are more than 4,500 species of thrips alive today. Members of this group include predatory thrips, common thrips, and tube-tailed thrips. Thrips are much maligned as pests and are known to destroy a variety of  grain, vegetable, and fruit crops.True Bugs (Hemiptera) - There are about 50,000 species of bugs alive today. Members of this group include plant bugs, seed bugs, and stink bugs. True bugs  have distinct front wings that, when not in use, lie flat on the insects back.Twisted-wing parasites (Strepsiptera) - There are about 532 species of twisted-wing parasites alive today. Members of this group are internal parasites during the larval and pupal stages of their development. They parasitize a variety of insects including grasshoppers, leafhoppers, bees, wasps, and many others. After pupating, adult male twisted-wing parasites leave their host. Adult females remain within the host and only partially emerge to mate and then return to the host while young develop inside the females abdomen, emerging within the host later.Web-spinners (Embioptera) - There are about 200 specie s of web-spinners alive today. Members of this group are unique among insects in that they have silk glands in their front legs. Web-spinners also have enlarged hind legs that enable them to scurry backward through the tunnels of their underground nests. References Hickman C, Robers L, Keen S, Larson A, IAnson H, Eisenhour D. Integrated Principles of Zoology 14th ed. Boston MA: McGraw-Hill; 2006. 910 p.Meyer, J. General Entomology Resource Library. 2009. Published online at https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/index.html.Ruppert E, Fox R, Barnes R. Invertebrate  Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach. 7th ed. Belmont CA: Brooks/Cole; 2004. 963 p.

Essay on Alexander Hamiltons Poltical Philosophy

Alexander Hamiltons Poltical Philosophy This country was shaped by many great men, with one simple idea of being able to live free lives and make their own choices. One of these men was Alexander Hamilton, who helped create a new political idea that he, and his colleagues, called Federalism. This system was one of the shaping forces of the Constitution and Declaration of Independence, which proved to be the roots of America’s political system. The purpose of this paper is to explain Hamilton’s idea of Federalism, and how it is still in affect today. Alexander Hamilton grew up in what was called the â€Å"new world†. He arrived here an â€Å"impoverished immigrant† and by the age of 17, he was already taking orders from General George†¦show more content†¦There were about 85 publications that discussed the whole idea of Federalism, at least Hamilton’s and Madison’s view. They talked about dangers from foreign influence, dangers of war between the states, defects of the Art icles of Confederation, the necessity of government, and the powers of the president and central government. For the most part, Hamilton made up much of what he believed the system should include. Federalism as we know it today, is a form of government in which a constitution divides powers between a central government and sub-divisional governments. In America the central government is the Federal government and the subdivision is the states. Just to have a central government and local governments does not make it federalism you must have division of powers between these two and neither the central or the sub governments receives its powers from the other, their power is derived from one source which is the constitution. Hamilton made it clear by this point in his â€Å"political theory† The purpose of federalism was to provide further protection against tyranny, which threatened peoples, liberties. Also it was formed to prevent the formation of a concentrated power in one a rea of government, so the development of federalism came about. It was created for this purpose but in today’s society does it still serve

Lifes Measurement free essay sample

Age is not only measured in years. Personally, I’m three houses, approximately 6,000 songs, and 1,825 peanut butter and jelly sandwiches old. I can also measure my life in trips to the airport. Each time I fly, one more trip documents my life. When I was six airport trips old, my mother, sister, and I drove to Kennedy Airport to fly to England, where my father was waiting at our new home. As the grown-ups around me shed tears, I could barely contain my excitement about our â€Å"vacation,† unable to grasp what moving across the Atlantic Ocean really meant. Eight hours, three airplane meals, and zero hours of sleep later, I arrived at Heathrow Airport, now seven airport trips old. England holds my greatest memories. There I learned to read, which introduced me to the world of literature, a world I escape to whenever given the chance. I saw firsthand how people’s attitudes can make all the difference my family was dropped headfirst into British society, but fell onto a pillow of hospitality and caring from everyone around us, including the local cashier who called me â€Å"Poppet† and â€Å"Love† and our postman who rode his bike around town. We will write a custom essay sample on Lifes Measurement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Those four years shaped my perspective from the first day of school in year two (first grade) to my last night in the country when my family’s closest friends sat on lawn chairs with us late into the night in on packed-up house and cherished our last moments as neighbors. My sister and I straddled three countries when I was 16 trips to the airport old. The airport in Germany is built right over the border of Switzerland, Germany, and France. Being so young and unaware of how privileged we were to be two young globetrotters, my sister and I took our locations for granted and viewed places like Rome’s Coliseum and Paris’s Eiffel Tower as our playground. It wasn’t until a few airport trips ago that I came to appreciate how the trips around Europe influenced my life. I have a greater understanding of the world as a whole and know that there is something beyond the United States and the way we view the world. My appreciation for history has expanded as I learned about the countries I visited, knowing I have walked through buildings hundreds of years old, each scuff on the floor a tribute to those who have come before me, whose mistakes I must learn from and whose lives have shaped the world of today. This summer I turned 44 airport trips old when I traveled once again to meet my grandfather in Chicago for a Donauschwaben festival. My grandfather was born into this ethnic group unfamiliar to most people, including me, until recently. Being a German in Yugoslavia (now Siberia) during World War II, my grandfather and his friends and family were expelled by the Partisans. I heard firsthand accounts of great loss and hardship. As I’ve learned about my heritage, I have come to appreciate the life I was born into, and am beginning to understand my personal history and the history of my mother’s family. In college I plan on spending a semester in Austria in order to work on my German and experience Europe again. Regardless of whether I am 46 or 60 airport trips old by then, I am eager to continue my journey in the sky, a journey I am excited to know has barely begun.

Jean Watsons Theory of Caring free essay sample

Finally, personal reflections from the caring moment will be included. The reflections will highlight the things learned from the interaction by the nurse and how the caring is perceived by the patient or family members involved. Background and Major Concepts of Watson’s Theory Jean Watson’s theory of human caring has been evolving over the last 30 years into what it is today. The major components of Watson’s theory are the carative factors, the transpersonal caring relationship, and the caring occasion/caring moment (Cara, 2003). According to Alligood (2010), Watson had the desire to bring meaning and focus to the emerging discipline of nursing as a distinct health profession with unique values, knowledge, practices, ethics, and mission. She thought that caring was central to nursing and focused her attention on ways to show that caring promotes growth and good health and can be used by all health care professionals. Watson sought to find a common meaning for the discipline of nursing that applied to all work settings (Sitzman, 2007). We will write a custom essay sample on Jean Watsons Theory of Caring or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Early in her work Jean Watson noted 10 carative factors that can be identified and serve as a guide to practicing nursing and these eventually evolved into the 10 clinical caring caritas processes. The caring caritas processes are as follows: 1) Practice of loving kindness and equanimity within context of caring consciousness. 2) Being authentically present, and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and the one-being-cared-for. 3) Cultivation of one’s own spiritual practices and transpersonal self, going eyond ego self, opening to others with sensitivity and compassion. 4) Developing and sustaining a helping trusting, authentic caring relationship. 5) Being present to, and supportive of, the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for. 6) Creative use of self and all ways of knowing as part of the caring process; to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices. 7) Engaging in genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning, attempting to stay within others’ frames of reference. ) Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as non-physical), subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are potentiated. 9) Assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering â€Å"human care essentials,† which potentiate alignment of mindbodyspirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence. 0) Opening and attending to spiritual mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for (Cara, 2003). Watson also focuses on the transpersonal caring relationship and the connections that exist in this relationship. In transpersonal caring the nurse consciously focuses on self and other within interpersonal exchanges in the present moment, while going beyond the moment and opening to new possibilities and values the existence of the others inner and outer perspectives (Sitzman, 2007). It is important to point out that the caring occasion/caring moment Watson describes can occur in any setting in which a patient and health care professional interact. According to Rafael (2000), Watson stresses the importance of the lived experience not only of the client but also of the nurse and these two come together in a caring moment and that becomes part of the life history of each person. Watson’s work heavily focuses on the connections made between nurse and patient and she knew that a major factor influencing these connections was his or her previous experiences. Caring Moment and Major Theory Assumptions I will be describing a caring moment that I was recently involved in at work concerning the family of a patient who had just expired in the emergency department. This situation involved a young man who reportedly had been involved in illegal activity that led to him sustaining a gunshot wound prior to arriving in the emergency department and that wound led to him dying in the emergency department. This patient had a very large family and group of friends who were gathering in the lobby and outside of the hospital. They were understandably distraught concerning what had happened and were becoming very anxious and impatient regarding being able to see their loved one. The caring moment began in the events that took place in the emergency department while caring for this patient and his family. Watson’s theory of caring makes assumptions related to person, health, nursing, and the environment that can be attributed to the nurse patient situation mentioned above. In this situation the person/person’s being cared for are the family members present in the emergency department to view their loved one who had tragically just lost his life. Watson’s view of the environment covered not only the immediate setting but also society. In this particular situation the environment is considered the lobby, trauma bay, and counseling room where the interactions between the nurse and family members were occurring. The environment became the place where the family could be alone with their loved one as well as be alone themselves to grieve over their loss. According to Alligood (2010), Watson believed that the nurse can also become the environment in which a â€Å"sacred space† is created where intentional healing and caring can occur. Watson’s view of health is concerned with complete physical, mental, and social well-being and functioning related to those. Health in this situation is not considered the absence of disease or good physical health, but dealt with the emotional and spiritual aspects of health as described by Watson. Health can be redefined as the unity and harmony within the body, mind, and soul and a harmony between self and others and self and nature (Alligood, 2010). Nursing according to Watson is concerned with preventing illness and promoting and restoring health. In this situation I was providing intentional care to this patient and his family and this is considered nursing in Watson’s theory. Transpersonal Relationship and Carative Factors Utilized Several of Watson’s carative factors are utilized when caring for the patient’s family mentioned above. According to Watson a single caring moment becomes a moment of possibility and in that moment an actual opportunity for human caring can occur (Alligood, 2010). In the initial encounter with the family the fourth carative factor of developing a helping, trusting, human, caring relationship is utilized. This family was very upset and they needed to trust in me and understand that I was there to help and that I genuinely cared about them and their loved one. I established this by speaking with them in a caring way and allowing them back in a controlled manner to view their family member. The fifth carative factor used is promoting and accepting the expression of positive and negative feelings during the time the family was with their loved one. They were obviously upset and were encouraged to express their feelings both positive and negative. This involved allowing the family to be angry and grieve as needed. The seventh carative factor promoting transpersonal teaching and learning is used with the family concerning the questions they had about the events that took place after we received the patient in the emergency department. The steps we took to attempt to save his life were explained to the family, and this helped them gain a better understanding of the situation. The tenth carative factor allowed existential, phenomenological, spiritual aspects to be addressed. This family had religious convictions that needed to be addressed and requested to pray with their loved one and have his pastor present. This was facilitated for the family so that they could properly address their loved one’s spiritual needs. Finally the third carative factor concerns the cultivation of sensitivity to one’s self and to others. I did not pass any assumptions or judgment onto this patient or his family regarding the circumstances involved in his death. I relayed to the family that I understood his or her loved one was a unique individual with inherent worth and that I was there to provide non-judgmental care to the patient and his family. Personal Reflection I learned many things about myself as a person and as a nurse following the experience and caring moments mentioned above. I learned that I can communicate my true intentions and purpose as a nurse who cares to a family that was initially upset and angry about their loved one passing away. My caring intent was well received and understood by this family and they appreciated it very much. I learned that I can provide compassionate and understanding care without allowing any assumptions or judgments about the ircumstances of the situation to cloud my purpose and duty as a nurse. I learned to utilize many of Watson’s carative factors in an actual clinical situation and that these were very beneficial to my nursing care. The family of this patient was very appreciative and voiced to me that my approach to the situation had allowed them to cope with the death of his or her loved one the best way possible and that without my understanding and accepting care it wo uld have been much more difficult for them. Conclusion In conclusion, Jean Watson’s theory of human caring helps define the caring moment or moments that occur between a nurse and patient and focuses on the fact that both nurse and patient have a uniqueness he or she brings to the moment. Watson’s theory focuses on the 10 catative factors recognized in her initial work as well as the more recently redefined clinical caritas processes. Watson’s theory is comprehensive because it addresses multiple aspects of the patient such as the mind, body, and spirit and her theory can be used by all health care professionals. Watson’s theory also highlights the importance of the transpersonal relationship that exists between the nurse and patient. Watson believes that caring is one of the most important parts of the nursing process and that her theory of human caring can be applied to patients and their families in addition to oneself. There are elements of Watson’s theory of human caring that can be applied and utilized in the daily practice of nursing. Nurses that use these elements in daily practice can experience the benefits for themselves in addition to the patients involved as highlighted in the above clinical situation. References Alligood, M. R. 2010). Nursing theory: Utilization application (4th ed. ). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier Cara, C. (2003). A pragmatic view of Jean Watson’s caring theory. International Journal for Human Caring, 7(3), 51-61. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Rafael, A. (2000). Watson’s philosophy, science, and theory of human caring as a conceptual fr amework for guiding community health nursing practice. Advances in Nursing Science, 23(2), 34-49. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Sitzman, K. (2007). â€Å"Teaching-learning professional caring based on Jean Watson’s Theory of Human Caring. † International Journal for Human Caring, 11(4), 8-16. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. ?

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge essays

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge essays The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge was created in 1960 in northeastern Alaska to protect and maintain its naturally functioning community of arctic and sub-arctic ecosystems. A variety of wildlife, including 36 fish species, 36 kinds of land mammals, over 160 bird species, and 9 marine animals, reside in this protected area. However, beneath this beautiful land, is a black gold mine. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that below the permafrost of the 1.5 million-acre coastal plain, lies 11-31 billion barrels of oil. This has lead to a constant fight over oil drilling vs. wildlife preservation and conservation. Oil industry representatives argue that the demand for energy, and high prices of gasoline and heating oil, justify exploiting the refuges oil resources. Oil drilling in ANWR will have a variety of negative effects on its delicate ecosystem including disruption of wildlife patterns, noise, pollution, and alteration of the land. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge was created to protect and maintain the lands relatively undisturbed condition, and thus oil drilling should not be allowed in this protected area. The oil industry believes that the amount of oil located in the Arctic Refuges 1002 area is a substantial amount, and is a resource that should be exploited. The U.S. Geological Survey estimated in 2000 that there is a 95% chance of finding 1.9 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil in the 1002 area. At the current price of $24 a barrel, there is a 50% chance of finding a nine months supply of oil (Potential, 5). Rather than deplete the oil resources in Alaska as well as endanger habitat and wildlife for nine months of domestic oil consumption, the United States should look into other sources of fuel. Natural gas, solar power, and hydroelctric power, are forms of energy that can be taken advantage of. The United States could also look into lowering consum...

A History of Bow and Arrow Technology

A History of Bow and Arrow Technology Bow and arrow hunting (or archery) is a technology first developed by early modern humans in Africa, perhaps as long as 71,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence shows that the technology was certainly used by humans during the Howiesons Poort phase of Middle Stone Age Africa, between 37,000 and 65,000 years ago; recent evidence at South Africas Pinnacle Point cave tentatively pushes the initial use back to 71,000 years ago. However, there is no evidence that the bow and arrow technology was used by people who migrated out of Africa until the Late Upper Paleolithic or Terminal Pleistocene, at most 15,000-20,000 years ago. The oldest surviving organic elements of bows and arrows only date to the Early Holocene of about 11,000 years ago. Africa: Middle Stone Age, 71,000 years ago.Europe and Western Asia: Late Upper Paleolithic, although there are no UP rock art paintings of archers and the oldest arrow shafts date to the Early Holocene, 10,500 BP; the earliest bows in Europe are from the bog site of Stellmor in Germany, where 11,000 years ago someone lost a pine arrow shaft with nocks in the end.Japan / Northeast Asia: Terminal Pleistocene.North / South America: Terminal Pleistocene. Making a Bow and Arrow Set Based on modern-day San Bushmen bow-and-arrow manufacture, existing bows and arrows curated in South African museums as well as archaeological evidence for Sibudu Cave, Klasies River Cave, and Umhlatuzana Rockshelter in South Africa, Lombard and Haidle (2012) operationalized the basic process of making a bow and arrows. To make a bow and a set of arrows, the archer needs stone tools (scrapers, axes, woodworking adzes, hammerstones, tools for straightening and smoothing wooden shafts, flint for making fire), a container (ostrich eggshell in South Africa) for carrying water, ochre mixed with resin, pitch, or tree gum for adhesives, fire for blending and setting the adhesives, tree saplings, hardwood and reeds for the bow stave and arrow shafts, and animal sinew and plant fiber for binding material. The technology for making a bow stave is close to that of making a wooden spear (first made by Homo heidelbergensis more than 300,000 years ago); but the differences are that instead of straightening a wooden lance, the archer needs to bend the bow stave, string the bow, and treat the stave with adhesives and fat to prevent splitting and cracking. How Does It Compare to Other Hunting Technologies? From a modern standpoint, the bow and arrow technology  is definitely a leap forward from lance and atlatl (spear thrower) technology. Lance technology involves a long spear which is used to thrust at prey. An atlatl is a separate piece of bone, wood or ivory, that acts as a lever to increase the power and speed of a throw: arguably, a leather strap attached to the end of a lance spear might be a technology between the two. But bow and arrow technology has a number of technological advantages over lances and atlatls. Arrows are longer-range weapons, and the archer needs less space. To fire off an atlatl successfully, the hunter needs to stand in big open spaces and be highly visible to his/her prey; arrow hunters can hide behind bushes and shoot from a kneeling position. Atlatls and spears are limited in their repeatability: a hunter can carry one spear and maybe as many as three darts for an atlatl, but a quiver of arrows can include a dozen or more shots. To Adopt or Not to Adopt Archaeological and ethnographic evidence suggests that these technologies were rarely mutually exclusive- groups combined spears and atlatls and bows and arrows with nets, harpoons, deadfall traps, mass-kill kites, and buffalo jumps, and many other strategies as well. People vary their hunting strategies based on the prey being sought, whether it is big and dangerous or wily and elusive or marine, terrestrial or airborne in nature. The adoption of new technologies can profoundly affect the way a society is constructed or behaves. Perhaps the most important difference is that lance and atlatl hunting are group events, collaborative processes that are successful only if they include a number of family and clan members. In contrast, bow and arrow hunting can be achieved with just one or two individuals. Groups hunt for the group; individuals for the individual families. That is a profound social change, affecting almost every aspect of life including who you marry, how big is your group, and how status is conveyed. One issue that might also have affected the adoption of the technology may be that bow and arrow hunting simply has a longer training period than atlatl hunting. Brigid Grund (2017) examined records from modern competitions for atlatl (Atlatl Association International Standard Accuracy Contest) and archery (Society for Creative Anachronism InterKingdom Archery Competition). She discovered an individuals atlatl scores increase steadily, showing improvement in skill within the first few years. Bow hunters, however, do not begin to approach maximum skill until the fourth or fifth year of competition. The Great Technology Shift There is much to be understood in the processes of how technology changed and indeed which technology came first. The earliest atlatl we have dates to the Upper Paleolithic, only 20,000 years ago: the South African evidence is quite clear that bow and arrow hunting is much older still. But archaeological evidence being what it is, we still dont really know the complete answer about the dates of hunting technologies and we may never have a better definition of when the inventions occurred than at least as early as. People adapt to technologies for reasons other than just because something is new or shiny. Every new technology is characterized by its own costs and benefits for the task at hand. Archaeologist Michael B. Schiffer referred to this as application space: that the level of adoption of a new technology depends on the number and variety of tasks that it could be used on, and which it is best suited to. Old technologies are rarely completely obsoleted, and the transition period can be very long indeed. Sources Angelbeck B, and Cameron I. 2014. The Faustian bargain of technological change: Evaluating the socioeconomic effects of the bow and arrow transition in the Coast Salish past. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 36:93-109.Bradfield J. 2012. Macrofractures on bone-tipped arrows: analysis of hunter-gatherer arrows in the Fourie collection from Namibia. Antiquity 86(334):1179-1191. Brown KS, Marean CW, Jacobs Z, Schoville BJ, Oestmo S, Fisher EC, Bernatchez J, Karkanas P, and Matthews T. 2012. An early and enduring advanced technology originating 71,000 years ago in South Africa. Nature 491(7425):590-593.Callanan M. 2013. Melting snow patches reveal Neolithic archery. Antiquity 87(337):728-745.Coolidge FL, Haidle MN, Lombard M, and Wynn T. 2016. Bridging theory and bow hunting: human cognitive evolution and archaeology. Antiquity 90(349):219-228.Erlandson J, Watts J, and Jew N. 2014. Darts, Arrows, and Archaeologists: Distinguishing Dart and Arrow Points in the Archaeological Record. American Antiquity 79(1):162-169. Grund BS. 2017. Behavioral Ecology, Technology, and the Organization of Labor: How a Shift from Spear Thrower to Self Bow Exacerbates Social Disparities. American Anthropologist 119(1):104-119.Kennett DJ, Lambert PM, Johnson JR, and Culleton BJ. 2013. Sociopolitical Effects of Bow and Arrow Technology in Prehistoric Coastal California. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 22(3):124-132.Lombard M, and Haidle MN. 2012. Thinking a Bow-and-arrow Set: Cognitive Implications of Middle Stone Age Bow and Stone-tipped Arrow Technology. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 22(02):237-264.Lombard M, and Phillipson L. 2010. Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity 84(325):635–648.Whittaker JC. 2016. Levers, Not Springs: How a Spearthrower Works and Why It Matters. In: Iovita R, and Sano K, editors. Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Stone Age Weaponry. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p 65-74.

Current campus events film review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Current campus events film review - Essay Example However, in the film there are genuinely different planets and viewpoints on life in India that impart one agonizing thing in like manner: All the ladies are bound in by the patriarchal society in which they are raised (Pahuja, 2012). In this documentary, the author’s aim was to compose a film that will focus on two opposite worlds with voices of defendants and opposition. Therefore, to be clear, this isnt an issue restricted to India particularly or South Asia by and large. The author reveals that sex imbalance is an issue that compasses the globe and exists in our own lawns as well (Goodhart, 2009). As a report by the United Nations closed, no general public treats its ladies and in addition its men. The young ladies in the film, Ankita, Pooja, and even Prachi, are profoundly insightful ladies. Its hard to watch and know how high they could take off were their wings not cut, their destinies viably fixed. The director of this film, is tackling the obligation of imparting our stories and talking our truths. Whatever our race, confidence, or sex, we must claim our stories, uncover our truths and discuss what harms (Brysk, 2013). Yes, looking past the excellent bangles and benarsee saris can be uncomfortable , however concealing the injuries just makes them putrefy. Its just through open dialog that we can recuperate (Pahuja 2012). The best thing about this narrative is, it never takes sides and dependably has a non-judgmental tone. We can settle on our decisions, which one do we help and in all honesty theres a greater amount of negative in both stories. In fact the way portrayal is carried out, there are spots where you can attract parallels to both worlds. Just positives I see are, in excellence challenge, the young ladies have an opportunity to get popular and get acclaim, in addition to fruitful life. A life of equal human rights